STRUCTURE OF PALLADIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( September 2014) Unfortunately the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories which could not lead to the correct nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged Up and Down quarks, discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig , I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ” (2003) by reviving the natural laws which led to my discovery of 288 quarks in nucleons including 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron able to give considerable charge distributions in nucleons for discovering the nuclear force and structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. (See my papers of nuclear structure in FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS ). Naturally occurring palladium (Pd) is composed of six stable isotopes, Pd-102, Pd-104, Pd-105, Pd-106, Pd-108, and Pd-110, although two of them are theoretically unstable. The most stable radioisotopes are Pd-107 with a half-life of 6.5 million years, Pd-103 with a half-life of 17 days, and Pd-100 with a half-life of 3.63 days. Twenty-three other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 90.949 u (Pd-91) to 123.937 u (Pd-124). Most of these have half-lives that are less than a half an hour except Pd-101 (half-life: 8.47 hours), Pd-109 (half-life: 13.7 hours), and Pd-112 (half-life: 21 hours). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Pd-106, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay product before Pd-106 is rhodium and the primary product after is silver. Radiogenic Ag-107 is a decay product of Pd-107 and was first discovered in the Santa Clara, California meteorite of 1978. The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. Pd-107 versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have clearly been melted since accretion of the solar system, must reflect the presence of short-lived nuclides in the early solar system. ' ' STRUCTURE OF Pd-92, Pd-94, Pd-96, Pd-98, Pd-100, Pd-102, Pd-104, Pd-106, Pd-108, Pd-110, AND Pd-112 WITH S= 0 For understanding the structure of the above nuclides you must read my STRUCTURE OF Rb-102....Rb-110 . The structure of the above nuclides with an even number of extra neutrons is based on the structure of Pd-92 of high symmetry with 46 protons and 46 neutrons. In the following diagram of the Pd -92 we clear that the structure of of Pd-92 is similar to the structure of Ru-88 with S =0 in which the two additional vertical systems with S=0 like the p45n45 and n46p56 give the structure of Pd-92 of high symmetry leading to the structure of 5 stable isotopes like the Pd-102, Pd-104, Pd-106, Pd-108, and Pd-110. DIAGRAM OF Pd-92 WITH S = 0 In this structure you see the additional vertical system of p45n45 and n46p46 with S =0 which make symmetrical horizontal bonds with the n25 and p27 and the p26 and n28 of the structure of Ru-88 with S=0 . Note that in the Ru-88 the p41, n41, p42, n42, p43, n43 p44, and n44 of opposite spins are not shown. Also 8 deuterons of opposite spins from p13n13 to p20n20 and the 4 deuterons from p33n33 to p36 n36 are not shown. ' ' ' n40.......p40' ' +HSQ p38........n38 ' ' n31………p12........n12......p32' ' -HP6 p31....n11.........p11…… n32 ' ' p29....... n10.........p10……n30' ' +HP5 n29……p9..........n9 …….p30 ' ' n27.........p8..........n8.......p28' ' -HP4 n45....p27.......n7..........p7.......n28........p46 ' ' p25.........n6.........p6.......n26' ' +HP3 p45...n25……p5........n5……...p26.......n46 ' ' n23…… p4........n4……..p24' ' -HP2 p23…….n3…….p3……….n24 ' ' p21.........n2………p2........n22' ' +HP1 n21......p1........n1..........p22 ' ' p37......n37 ' ' -HSQ n39......p39 ' Then in the presence of an even number of extra neutrons with opposite spins which fill the blank positions we get the unstable structures of Pd-94, Pd-96, Pd-98, and Pd-100. Note that the extra neutrons of these nuclides make two bonds per neutron but the small number of extra neutrons cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However the two bonds per neutron of the more extra neutrons with opposite spins than those of Pd-100 for constructing the stable nuclides like the Pd-102, Pd-104, Pd-106 Pd-108 and Pd -110 are able to give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Whereas in the unstable Pd-112 the two more extra neutrons than those of Pd-110 ( in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the decay. SRUCTURE OF Pd-114, Pd-116, Pd-118, Pd-120, Pd-122, Pd-124, Pd-126, AND Pd-128 WITH S=0 In the absence of blank positions the extra neutrons of opposite spins of the above unstable nuclides make the same single bonds as those of Pd-112 and lead to the decay. Thus the structure of them is based on the structure of Pd-112. For example the unstable Pd-128 with S = 0 has 16 more extra neutrons of opposite spins than those of Pd-112. STRUCTURE OF Pd-93, Pd-95, AND Pd-91 In these nuclides of Pd-93 and Pd-95 with odd number of extra neutrons we see that the extra n47(+1/2 )gives the structure of the Pd-93 with S = +9/2 . For understanding the structure of Pd-93 we use again the diagram of Pd-92 with S =0. In this case the p37n37 and n39p39 change their spins from S = -2 to S = +2 giving S = +4. Particularly they move from the -HSQ to the +HSQ in order to make horizontal bonds in front of p38938 and behind the n40p40. So in the presence of the one extra n44(+1/2) one gets the structure of Pd-93 with S =+9/2. That is S = +4 + 1(+1/2) = +9/2 Then in the presence of two more extra neutrons of opposite spins than the one n44 we get the structure of Pd-95 with the same S = +9/2 On the other hand in the absence of two neutrons of positive spins in the structure of Pd-93 one gets the structure of Pd-91 with S = +7/2. That is S = +9/2 - 2(+1/2) = +7/2 . STRUCTURE OF Pd-97, Pd-99, Pd-101, Pd-103, Pd-105 AND Pd-107 WITH S = +5/2 For understanding the structure of the above nuclides you must read my STRUCTURE OF Pd-105 . Here the unstable structures of pd-97, Pd-99, Pd-101, and Pd-103 are based on another structure of Pd-93 having S =+5/2. For example the unstable Pd-103 has 10 more extra neutrons of opposite spins than the one neutron of Pd-93 with S= +5/2. Such extra neutrons make two bonds per neutron but the small number of extra neutrons cannot give enough energies for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions . In these cases also of no high symmetry the extra neutrons are unable to give enough energies to pn bonds . For example the Pd-102 with high symmetry is a stable nuclide, while the Pd-103 of one more extra neutron is an unstable one. However in the stable Pd-105 with S =+5/2 we see 3 more extra neutrons than those of Pd-102 able to give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. Whereas in the unstable Pd-107 the two more extra neutrons than those of Pd-105 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the decay. ' ' STRUCTURE OF Pd-109, Pd-111, Pd-113, Pd-115, AND Pd-117 WITH S = +5/2 Similarly in the presence of more extra neutrons than those of Pd-107 we get the above unstable structures based on Pd-107, because the extra neutrons than those of Pd-107 make single bonds leading to the decay. Category:Fundamental physics concepts